N1 Predecessors - Predecessors to the N1 - From left: YaRD nuclear powered ICBM; YaKhR nuclear launch vehicle; SuperRaket; R-9 ICBM; N-III; N-IIGR; N-I of 1962; N1-L3 of 1964 16,040 bytes. 402 x 318 pixels.

The N1 launch vehicle, developed in the 1960's, was to be the Soviet Union's counterpart to the Saturn V. The largest of a family of launch vehicles that were to replace the ICBM-derived launchers then in use, the N series was to launch Soviet cosmonauts to the moon, to Mars and Venus, and place huge military space stations into orbit. In comparison to Saturn, the project was started late, starved of funds and priority, and dogged by political and technical struggles between the chief designers Korolev, Glushko, and Chelomei. The end result was four launch failures and cancellation of the project five years after Apollo landed on the moon. Not only did a Soviet cosmonaut never land on the moon, but the Soviet Union even denied that the huge project ever existed.

Before the N1 - 1955 to 1960

Before the N1 there was an attempt to develop launchers and ICBM's to put large payloads into orbit using nuclear thermal propulsion. The first official plan for future Soviet spaceflight was contained in a decree of 30 January 1956. This set forth the following objectives:

• Orbiting of satellites of 1.8 to 2.5 tonnes mass by 1958
• One week flight of a manned spacecraft by 1964
• Unmanned reconnaissance satellite by 1970
• Rocket capable of 12 tonne escape velocity payload by 1970
• Rocket with 100 tonne low earth orbit payload, capable of placing 2 to 3 men on the moon (no date set)

The first approach to the rather vague last objective was the use of nuclear power. Korolev's OKB-1 began work on nuclear launchers and missiles on 30 June 1958. Competing engine designs were in development by Glushko's OKB-456 and Bondaryuk's OKB-670. The draft project designs of both bureaux used nuclear reactors in cylindrical housings, with the reactors operating at 3000 degrees K. The propellant was heated in the reactor and exhausted through four expansion nozzles. The Glushko engine operated with ammonia, while the Bondaryuk engine used a mixture of ammonia and alcohol. With such propellants a specific impulse of 430 seconds at launch was expected. Three rockets were designed by OKB-1 utilising these engines:

• The first variant, YaKhR-2, followed the layout of the R-7 ICBM. With a length of 48 m, it had six strap-ons using 36 conventional LOX/Kerosene Kuznetsov engines. The core of the missile used the nuclear engine. This ignited at altitude after burnout of the strap-ons with a thrust of 140 to 170 tonnes. Lift-off mass of the booster was to be from 850 to 880 tonnes, with an orbital payload of 35 to 40 tonnes.

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  N1 Variants - N1 Launch Vehicle Family Credit: © Mark Wade. 8,667 bytes. 641 x 227 pixels.

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• The second variant was an ICBM with a range of 14,000 km. Using the Bondaryuk engine this would have had a lift-off mass of 87 tonnes and a payload of 2.6 tonnes. With the Glushko engine the figures would have been 100 tonnes and 4 tonnes. Obviously testing of such a missile with a nuclear reactor being delivered to the impact zone together with the test warhead would have grave ecological consequences (even though it was anticipated that tests would impact into an artificial reservoir). Interestingly the existence of such a project was mentioned by the American spy Oleg Penkovskiy in 1961 - but considered absurd by Western experts until revealed by RKK Energia in 1996.

• The third variant designed was a 'Super Rocket' with a lift-off mass of 2,000 tonnes and a payload of 150 tonnes. This was a true antecedent of the N1. The first and second stages were in the conical 'raketov' form later adopted for the N1. The first stage used a massive cluster of Kuznetsov NK-9 engines each with a thrust of 52 tonnes. The second stage used four nuclear engines with a total thrust of 850 tonnes. Operating at an elevated temperature of 3500 degrees K a higher specific impulse of 550 seconds in vacuum was expected. Although ideal for use in nuclear rockets, use of liquid hydrogen as a propellant was not contemplated. A mixture of liquid hydrogen and methane was considered as a better-performance propellant at a later date.

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YaKhR-2 exterior - YaKhR-2 Nuclear-powered Launch Vehicle Credit: © Mark Wade. 2,029 bytes. 93 x 418 pixels.

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Birth of the N-I

The space race with the Americans had heated up considerably since the casual program laid out in the plan of 1956 was issued. A decree of 10 December 1959 added a number of new programs, but for Korolev this was not enough. In a letter to the Central Committee of the Communist Part in January 1960 he proposed an aggressive program for Communist conquest of space. He declared:

• That the design bureaux of the Soviet Union must make a broad swift assault on space research
• That a new rocket of 1,000 to 2,000 tonnes gross lift-off mass with a 60 to 80 tonne payload must be developed at the earliest possible date
• That advanced propulsion systems - nuclear, Lox/LH2, low thrust liquid, ion, and plasma engines and correction rockets - be developed as quickly as possible
• That new automatic and radio guidance systems be developed to support these objectives

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N1 - 1962 - N-I as per draft project, 1962 4,655 bytes. 78 x 297 pixels.

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• N-I, with a 40 to 50 tonne payload, to be developed as quickly as possible in 1960 to 1963
• N-II, with a 60 to 80 tonne payload, using nuclear second and upper stages, to be developed in 1964 to 1965

As payloads for his rocket, to be developed in accordance of the Central Committee decree of 10 December 1959, the following would be developed for launch in the period 1963 to 1965:

• Three to six geostationary communications satellites of 2 to 3 tonnes mass for global communications
• Heavy manned space stations with a crew of 3 to 5, orbited at 350 to 400 km altitude. The station would conduct military reconnaissance, control other spacecraft in orbit, and undertake basic space research. The N-I version of the station would have a mass of 25 to 30 tonnes and the N-II version 60 to 70 tonnes
• Heliocentric satellite for solar studies of 1 to 2 tonnes mass
• Use of the N-I to launch a spacecraft with 2 to 3 men for flyby of the moon, entry into lunar orbit, and return to earth. Payload mass 10 to 12 tonnes in lunar orbit, 2 to 3 tonnes return payload.
• Use of the N-I to launch the MK interplanetary spacecraft with 2 to 3 crew on 2 to 3 year flyby missions to Mars and Venus. Automatic probes would be landed on the planets during the flyby manoeuvres.
• Use of the N-II for group flight of 3 to 4 spacecraft on expeditions to land on Mars and Venus. Crew per spacecraft would be 2 to 3. One spacecraft would be a reserve to ensure the safe return of the crews to earth. These spacecraft would be placed by the N-II on their interplanetary trajectories at a velocity of 11.2 km/s, have a mass of 10 to 30 tonnes, with a return capsule mass of 3 to 8 tonnes.
• Global rockets that could bombard any point on earth with showers of nuclear warheads totalling 40 to 100 tonnes mass at ranges of 3,000 to 12,000 km
• Potential to establish a defensive space infrastructure that would annihilate any enemy satellites or rockets that flew over the territory of the USSR
• Photographic and electronic reconnaissance of every part of the earth
• Precision military navigation

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N-IIGR - 1962 - N-IIGR Multi-Warhead FOBS, 1962 6,096 bytes. 98 x 336 pixels.

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Korolev also requested that a decree be issued to establish a USSR Institute of Interplanetary Studies. This would be a public body like the nuclear institute in Dubna, and would co-ordinate world-wide work on space research and technology. The decree was also to authorise publication in the USSR of an open scientific technical journal covering international exploitation of space and interplanetary research.

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N-III 1962 3,675 bytes. 57 x 337 pixels.

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By 30 May 1960 Korolev was back with a plan that now included participation of his rivals, Chelomei and Yangel. Project codes were applied and some of the work Korolev had planned was now Chelomei's. The consolidated plan was as follows:

• N-I - (Korolev) - to be developed in 1960 - 1962. 40 to 50 tonnes payload to low earth orbit and 10 to 20 tonnes to Mars. Draft project to be completed by second quarter 1961.
• N-II - (Korolev) - to be completed in 1963 - 1967. 60 to 80 tonne payload to low earth orbit and 20 to 40 tonnes to Mars. Draft project to be completed in 1962.
• KS - (Korolev) - Heavy manned spacecraft, 2-3 crew, to demonstrate rendezvous, docking, and controlled flight. To be developed in 1961 to 1963 (this would become Soyuz).
• KL - (Korolev) - Manned spacecraft for lunar flyby. To be developed in 1961 to 1964 (this would become the L1).
• KMV - (Korolev) - Interplanetary manned spacecraft for 2-3 crew, flyby of Mars and Venus. To be developed in 1962 to 1965 (this was the TMK-1).
• R-7 - Four-stage version of R-7- (Korolev) - 300 tonne gross lift-off mass, available from 1960 for robotic lunar and interplanetary flights (this would be the Molniya booster)
• M - (Korolev) - Launch to Mars of 1M robot probes in September - October 1960 and 2M probes in 1962 (these Mars flights were attempted on this schedule)
• V - (Korolev) - Launch to Venus of 1V probes in January 1961 and 2V probes in 1962 (these Mars flights were attempted on this schedule)
• E - (Korolev) - Launch to the moon (as per decree of 10 December 1959) E-1 lander probes in 1960 to 1961 and E-7 orbiters in 1961 (these lunar probes would eventually succeed many years behind schedule)
• K - (Chelomei) - Development of unpiloted Kosmoplans for flight to Mars and Venus with return to earth and landing at conventional airfields. These would use new exotic chemical systems, low thrust nuclear engines (nuclear-plasma, ion, atomic hydrogen). Sub-variants with a total mass of 10 to 12 tonnes and 25 tonnes would be developed in 1965-1966. Draft project to be completed in 1962.
• UR-500 - (Chelomei) - Develop a 600 tonne gross lift-off mass rocket using new chemical propellants for sending these spacecraft to nearby planets. Draft project to be completed in 1962. (This would become the UR-500 Proton booster)
• R-7L - (Korolev) - Develop in 1960 to 1962 a 4 stage version of the R-7, utilising R-9 technology, with a 300 tonne gross lift-off mass and high specific impulse engines in the last stage. Payload 10 tonnes to low earth orbit and 3 tonnes to escape. Draft project to be completed in 1961 (this booster, later called the Molniya-L, was never developed).
• Vostok recoverable spacecraft (Korolev) :

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  N1 early concept Credit: © Mark Wade. 3,881 bytes. 160 x 608 pixels.

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  • Photo and electronic reconnaissance versions to be developed in 1960 to 1962 (these would be the Zenit-2 reconnaissance satellites. They would end up flying after, not before the Vostok manned flights)
  • Manned version to be developed in 1961 to 1963 (these flew on schedule)
  • Scientific research version to be developed in 1960 to 1962 (these were designed but never flown)
  • Maneuverable rendezvous and docking version to be developed in 1961 to 1963 (this was the Vostok-Zh - never flown, replaced by Soyuz)

• Elektron - (Korolev) - high apogee radiation belt research satellites, developed according to decree of 10 December 1959, to be launched in 1960 to 1961 (these flew late to schedule)
• US - (Chelomei) - Naval reconnaissance satellite using P6 nuclear reactor. To be developed in 1962 to 1964 (these flew late to schedule)
• R - (Chelomei) - Manned Raketoplan spacecraft for orbital manoeuvring flight and recovery at conventional airfields. Total mass to be 10 to 12 tonnes, total gliding range during re-entry 2,500 to 3,000 km. Unpiloted version to be developed in 1960 to 1961, followed by piloted version in 1963 to 1965. Satellite interceptor operational version to be tested in 1962 to 1964 (only suborbital subscale tests were conducted on this program before it would be cancelled)
• Meteorological satellites - (Korolev) - Meteor R-7 launched satellites to be developed in 1961 to 1963 (these would fly, but behind schedule), to be followed by heavy-rocket satellites in 1963 to 1964 (designer not decided).
• Communications satellites - (Korolev) - R-7 launched satellites to be developed in 1961 to 1963 (these would fly, behind schedule, as the Molniya series), to be followed by heavy rocket satellites in 1962 to 1964 (designer not decided).
• DS - Small satellites / launchers - (Yangel) to be developed in 1961 to 1965, together with launch vehicles derived from the R-12 and R-14 ballistic missiles (this program flew on schedule)
• OS - (Korolev) - Space stations - the Ministry of Defence was to decide by the fourth quarter of 1960 whether it can utilise military stations with multiple independent rocket-warheads
• IS - Antisatellites - the Ministry of Defence was to decide by July 1960 whether to develop an R-7 launched system for annihilation of enemy reconnaissance satellites (this project was conducted, but given to Chelomei for launch on the UR-200. Eventually flew in the late 1960's, launched by Yangel Tsiklon rockets)
• Military Communications Satellites - the Ministry of Defence was to decide by the fourth quarter of 1960 whether to proceed with development of military communications satellites (this was done - the Strela series)
• GOSPLAN was to allocate budget beginning in 1961 for development of the systems set forth in the plan

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UR-700 - UR-700 lunar landing launch vehicle - cutaway showing arrangement of N2O4 oxidiser tanks (green) and UDMH fuel tanks (orange). The outer nine 4.1 m diameter modules contained fuel and oxidizer tanks for stage 1 and fuel tanks for the three core modules. After propellant depletion, the nine outer modules would separate, leaving the three core modules to continue their burn. The third stage, based on the Proton first stage, placed the LK-700 spacecraft into a 200 km earth orbit. The LK-700 was equipped with four nearly identical clustered stages. The three outer stages fired to place the spacecraft on a translunar trajectory. The inner core stage was used for midcourse corrections, braked the spacecraft into lunar orbit, and then again until it was just above the lunar surface. Credit: © Mark Wade. 11,990 bytes. 114 x 459 pixels.

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Design of the N-I

The same day that the decree was issued Korolev wrote to the Ministry of Defence, again trying to obtain support for a military orbital station (OS), on which a decision had been deferred to the end of the year. He pointed out that his design bureau had already completed a draft project, in which 14 work brigades had participated. Missions the station could accomplish included:

• Reconnaisance
• Combat operations against enemy spacecraft
• Strike against any point on earth
• Communications and relay functions
• Military applications studies
• Defence against enemy ballistic missiles
• Study of the space environment
• Study of the earth and planets
• Astronomical observations
• Weather observation
• Interorbital communications
• Study of the sun
• Biological research
• Radiation control studies

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R-56 test model - R-56 dynamic test model Credit: © Mark Wade. 12,695 bytes. 119 x 477 pixels.

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N1-L3 Tower - Detail of tower of N1-L3 7L Credit: RKK Energia. 22,436 bytes. 303 x 239 pixels.

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Glushko really saw the adoption of the N2O4/UDMH propellant combination as the answer to problems he had experienced with combustion instability and chamber cooling in the four-chamber RD-111 engine developed for Korolev's GR-1 ICBM. As was the case with the R-7, Glushko was unable to solve the problems and finally resorted to four smaller chambers operating from a single turbopump. This scheme provided problems of its own, however - difficulties in synchronising the thrust of the four chambers. By using N2O4/UDMH, a combustion chamber 280 to 580 degrees less than that of Lox/Kerosene would be obtained, greatly lessening these problems and allowing faster development.

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N1 Pad Construction - N1 Pads Under Construction Credit: RKK Energia. 21,705 bytes. 211 x 282 pixels.

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In developing the S1.5400 Korolev's team demonstrated the higher performance that could be achieved with a closed-cycle engine. Glushko refused to consider this for a Lox/Kerosene RD-250 - it would only increase the already unmanageable chamber pressures and temperatures. Therefore Korolev turned to Kuznetsov's design bureau. Kuznetsov's OKB had originally been founded to exploit German engineers and develop the gigantic turboprop engines of the Tu-95 Bear bomber. But with assistance from Korolev's team he promised he could learn the technology. Kuznetsov had good relations with Korolev and was conveniently located in Samara, the same town where R-7 production was underway and N-I production was planned. Kuznetsov was willing to attempt to produce the higher-efficiency closed cycle engine that Glushko believed was impossible with the Lox/Kerosene propellants.

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NK15 engine - NK-15 / 11D51 rocket engine for first stage of N1 Credit: © Mark Wade. 48,814 bytes. 346 x 537 pixels.

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Korolev proposed first to develop the N-II and N-III, based on the upper stages of the N-I. These would initially use the NK-9 engines developed for the R-9 and GR-1 rockets.

Step 1 would be the N-II, which would fulfil the GR-2 global rocket requirement in place of Chelomei's UR-500. It would have a gross lift-off mass of 750 tonnes, and deliver a 25 tonne payload to low earth orbit. It could also deliver a 25 megaton bomb from an under-the-radar orbital trajectory with an accuracy of 2 km. The N-11GR variant was an adaptation of the basic N-11, derived from the second and third stages of the N1 heavy booster. The GR-2 was to be a kind of enormous multiple-warhead FOBS (fractional orbit bombing system). Surrounding the top of the second stage of the rocket, like bullets in an enormous revolver, were six final stages derived from the 8K713 GR-1 last stage. Each stage had a 1,500 kg 2.2 MT nuclear warhead. The stages would separate from the main vehicle, and make violent manoeuvres using independent guidance systems to put each warhead in a different low 160 km altitude orbit. At the end of a 10,000 to 12,000 km journey along their separate orbital paths, the warheads would appear on US radar screens at the last moment with minimal warning. The total spread of the warheads would be 1800 km from left to right; two such global rockets could devastate America's major cities from coast to coast in an unstoppable first strike.

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N1 engineers - N1 engineers study drawing Credit: RKK Energia. 16,429 bytes. 339 x 240 pixels.

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This programme could be conducted at minimum cost and risk. The NK-9 would be flight-tested by the end of 1963 in the improved R-9M ICBM. If the military could not afford construction of a new launch site, Korolev proposed that the N-II could be assembled in the existing R-7 MIK assembly hall and launched from the two R-7 launch pads at Baikonur, LC-1 and LC-31. Using this cut-rate approach the N-II could be developed for 2 million roubles and provide real confidence that the N-I would be successful. Korolev promised that if a prompt go-ahead was received the N-I would make a first flight by the end of 1964 or the beginning of 1965.

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N1 Engine fired - N1 Engine fired on test stand Credit: RKK Energia. 12,330 bytes. 291 x 240 pixels.

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Korolev's next attempt to win military support for development of the N-I was his fantastic 'Orbitalniy Poyas' (OP -Orbital Belt) scheme of 20 April 1962. Anticipating Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defence Initiative by 25 years, he painted a picture of an invincible Soviet space force patrolling the heavens. Two to three large N-I launched military manned stations would control a constellation of strategic assets. Geosynchronous nuclear-powered satellites would provide secure communications. Piloted reconnaissance spacecraft would surprise the enemy, observing military preparations without warning. The orbital stations would provide continuous observations of the territory of the imperialist block. They would control combat sputniks, manoeuvrable anti-satellites that would control the heavens from altitudes of 300 to 2,000 km. Using docking methods, the stations would be remanned, providing fresh crews to control anti-ballistic missile interceptors in 150 to 100 km orbits and to deploy separately targetable warheads at a variety of altitudes.

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N1 Upper Stage - N1 Upper Stage firing on test stand Credit: RKK Energia. 11,716 bytes. 308 x 240 pixels.

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In parallel with the formal N1 draft project, since 1961, the Yangel and Chelomei bureaux had been developing alternate designs (Yangel's was designated R-56 and Chelomei's was the UR-700). Both used clustered 4 m diameter rocket stages. Both advocated each stage be equipped with a single large Glushko engine using toxic storable propellants and with a thrust of 450 to 550 tonnes. Such stages could be built in factories in Moscow or Dniepropetrovsk and shipped on the existing Soviet rail system to Baikonur. There they would be joined together but no actual metal fabrication work would have to be carried out. This approach was used with success for the smaller R-7 and Proton launch vehicles. Dynamic testing of scale models by TsNIIMASH indicated the clustering of large numbers of stages was feasible.

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N1 6L Liftoff Credit: RKK Energia. 15,447 bytes. 310 x 240 pixels.

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The N-I draft project was completed on 16 May 1962. The design was defended before the other Chief Designers on 2 to 16 July 1962. And this is what the draft project said:

The three stage N-I was designed to support the following objectives:

• Placement of heavy spacecraft in low earth orbit for the purposes of research into the space environment; the origin and evolution of the planet Earth; solar radiation; the nature of gravity; physical observations of nearby planets; understanding the origin of organic life and the evolution of life on earth; etc.

• Circumnavigation of the moon with a crew of two to three men; entry into lunar orbit of robotic and crewed modules for study of the lunar surface

• Expeditions to the surface of the moon for the study of its soil, relief, inner structure, physical properties, and selection of a suitable site for a research base on the moon

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  N1 6L ignition Credit: RKK Energia. 12,810 bytes. 310 x 240 pixels.

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• Establishment of a lunar base and regular traffic between the earth and the moon;

• Flyby of Mars and Venus and return to earth by a crew of two to three men

• Entry into orbit around Mars and Venus and return to earth of spacecraft with two to three men

• Delivery of expeditions to the surfaces of Mars and Venus and identification of sites for research bases

• Launch of automatic probes to the outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, etc.)

• Establishment of manned and unmanned spacecraft in high and geosynchronous earth orbits, not obtainable by launch vehicles derived by ICBM's, for radio and television communications, earth resources, early warning, and meteorological purposes

• Deployment of heavy automatic and piloted military stations for high priority operations in earth orbit, including the capability of making evasive manoeuvres and deployment of large numbers of nuclear warheads or other military apparatus in low earth orbit

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  NK-15 / 11D51 - NK-15 / 11D51 rocket engine for first stage of N1 Credit: © Mark Wade. 57,039 bytes. 382 x 577 pixels.

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• Simultaneous launch from a single base of a large number of nuclear warheads on intercontinental ballistic and global orbital trajectories, with the assistance of multiple independently-guided final rocket stages atop the last stage of the N-I

• Construction of a launch vehicle of the highest possible payload

• Development of the national technical base to the highest possible degree

• Development of a family of smaller rockets using the same technology

After extensive study it was determined that the design objective of a single launch payload of 75 tonnes into a 300 km orbit best met the required payload masses for a variety of missions:

• Manned lunar orbiter

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  N1 6L Engine Start Credit: RKK Energia. 6,551 bytes. 313 x 240 pixels.

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• Manned lunar landing, if used with Lox/LH2 upper stages

• Manned flyby of Mars and Venus

• Manned expeditions to orbits around Mars and Venus, utilising two N-I launches, docking in earth orbit, and nuclear electric propulsion for the spacecraft

Many trade studies were conducted comparing differing propellants and design layouts before settling on the configuration set forth in the draft project as the optimum design. These trade studies would be vital in defending the design before the expert commission against the attacks of Glushko. Propellant variants studied were:

• N1-K, the baseline, using Lox/Kerosene (TG-1) in all three stages
• N1-V1,V2,V3: Variants with Lox/LH2 stages. These later developments could reach 120 tonnes to 165 tonnes low earth orbit payloads needed for manned Mars expeditions.
• N1-D-A: Variant with storable N2O4/UDMH propellants. Other less energetic propellant combinations considered were OKA-50/UDMH, Nitric Acid (AK-27)/UDMH.

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N1 7L Liftoff Credit: RKK Energia. 13,588 bytes. 308 x 239 pixels.

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N1 MIK Assembly Hall Credit: RKK Energia. 20,890 bytes. 309 x 238 pixels.

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• N1-I - Packet rocket, as used for the R-7. Six strap-ons around an identical core with an upper stage. Two sub-types were considered: In the first, as in the R-7, the rocket would hang from the 'shoulder' of the strap-ons above the flame pit to minimise lower stage mass. The second, which was selected for further study, had the same layout, but the base of the rocket was mounted conventionally, free-standing on its base on the launch pad. This was the baseline design for comparison with the others.
• N1- II - Polyblock - a cluster of autonomous rocket stages, each consisting of two propellant tanks feeding individual engine sections. Loads would be carried through the individual stage structure, although the Blocks would be tied together to form a single unit. This was basically the same as the competing Chelomei UR-700 and Yangel R-56 layouts.
• N1-III - Polyblock - a cluster rocket, but with the loads transmitted through an external skin. The tanks would be unsupported and a common fuel system would feed the engines. This scheme was analogous to the American Saturn I first stage and Nova designs.
• N1-IV - Monoblock - large single stages, each with one oxidiser and one fuel tanks, using a common fuel system to feed the engines. This was analogous to the American Saturn V and the selected N-I configuration

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N1 Model Test Credit: RKK Energia. 13,560 bytes. 306 x 236 pixels.

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Following analysis of the designs, the following were the results of the detailed design analysis:

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N1 Wind Tunnel Test Credit: RKK Energia. 9,093 bytes. 320 x 240 pixels.

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In the United States launch from coastal Cape Canaveral permitted the 10 m diameter Saturn IC and Saturn II stages to be shipped by barge from the factories to the launch site. No such possibility existed for Baikonur, in the arid steppes of Kazakhstan. Alternate launch sites were considered (and some space engineers wistfully hoped for a launch site on the balmy Black Sea) but Baikonur remained the only possibility. Due to the geography of the Soviet Union there was no other launch location with relatively uninhabited downrange areas for impact of spent rocket stages.

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N1 Subscale Model Credit: RKK Energia. 22,171 bytes. 338 x 240 pixels.

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For the 75 tonne payload a gross lift-off mass of 2,000 to 2,300 tonnes would be required using only Lox/Kerosene propellants in all stages. It would be necessary to build a 150 tonne thrust closed-cycle rocket engine for use in the launch vehicle (at that time the largest rocket engine chamber built in Russia was 40 tonnes, open cycle). 24 NK-15/11D51 engines would be used in the first stage, 8 NK-15V/11D52 engines in the second stage, and 4 smaller NK-19/11D53 engines in the third stage. Development of engines in the 600 to 900 tonne thrust were studied but would have required development of new technologies and not been available during the project's time scale. A 150 tonne engine was well sized for use in the second stage and the clustering of large numbers of them in the first stage could be managed through use of the KORD control system (an elaborate automatic system that would monitor engine health, shut down any failing engine and its opposite number, allowing continued operation of the cluster until the required stage performance was reached).

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N1-L3 - 1964 - N1-L3 as per advanced project, 1964 5,220 bytes. 78 x 366 pixels.

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N-I Goes into Production

Despite intense criticism by Glushko, Keldysh and the rest of the expert commission supported the draft project. But the programme was still without an authorised mission. Following the approval of the draft project there was a more informal discussion between Khrushchev and the Chief Designers at the Soviet leader's estate at Pitsunda, on the Black Sea, in August. Korolev went over the heads of the military once again and pitched his giant military space station as a rationale for the project. At the conclusion of the meeting, Khrushchev ordered start of the project to put a 75 tonne manned platform with nuclear weapons into low earth orbit. The official decree authorising N-I production was issued on 24 September 1962 with first flight to occur in 1965. This set forth the first of a series of optimistic schedules for development of the launch vehicle. Completion of third stage tests was expected by the end of 1964, first and second stages by mid-1965, completion of all engine test stand runs by the first quarter of 1965, completion of the launch complex by the end of 1964, and first launch in 1965.

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Model of N1 pad Credit: RKK Energia. 24,069 bytes. 340 x 240 pixels.

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Barmin's GSKB SpetsMash was given responsibility for design and construction of the launch facilities. In March 1963 design work started on the N1 launch complex. The ground-breaking ceremony was held a year later and construction began of the N1 launch complex and assembly buildings

Continued in The N1 Story - Part 2

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N1 Rollout - N1 Rollout - base of booster Credit: RKK Energia. 24,422 bytes. 341 x 239 pixels.

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N1 Rollout - N1 Rollout - view from inside MIK Credit: RKK Energia. 17,840 bytes. 306 x 240 pixels.

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N1 Cutaway - Dimensioned Russian cutaway drawing of N1 launch vehicle. 23,788 bytes. 433 x 123 pixels.

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